Improvement of cell growth in green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii through co-cultivation with yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

PURPOSE: CO2 fixation methods using green algae have attracted considerable attention because they can be applied for the fixation of dilute CO2 in the atmosphere. However, green algae generally exhibit low CO2 fixation efficiency under atmospheric conditions. Therefore, it is a challenge to improve the CO2 fixation efficiency of green algae under atmospheric conditions. Co-cultivation of certain microalgae with heterotrophic microorganisms can increase the growth potential of microalgae under atmospheric conditions. The objective of this study was to determine the culture conditions under which the growth potential of green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is enhanced by co-culturing with the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and to identify the cause of the enhanced growth potential. RESULTS: When C. reinhardtii and S. cerevisiae were co-cultured with an initial green algae to yeast inoculum ratio of 1:3, the cell concentration of C. reinhardtii reached 133 × 105 cells/mL on day 18 of culture, which was 1.5 times higher than that of the monoculture. Transcriptome analysis revealed that the expression levels of 363 green algae and 815 yeast genes were altered through co-cultivation. These included genes responsible for ammonium transport and CO2 enrichment mechanism in green algae and the genes responsible for glycolysis and stress responses in yeast. CONCLUSION: We successfully increased C. reinhardtii growth potential by co-culturing it with S. cerevisiae. The main reasons for this are likely to be an increase in inorganic nitrogen available to green algae via yeast metabolism and an increase in energy available for green algae growth instead of CO2 enrichment.

Display of PETase on the Cell Surface of Escherichia coli Using the Anchor Protein PgsA.

Enzymatic degradation of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is attracting attention as a new technology because of its mild reaction conditions. However, the cost of purified enzymes is a major challenge for the practical application of this technology. In this study, we attempted to display the surface of the PET-degrading enzyme, PETase, onto Escherichia coli using the membrane anchor, PgsA, from Bacillus subtilis to omit the need for purification of the enzyme. Immunofluorescence staining confirmed that PETase was successfully displayed on the surface of E. coli cells when a fusion of PgsA and PETase was expressed. The surface-displaying E. coli was able to degrade 94.6% of 1 mM bis(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate in 60 min, and the PET films were also degraded in trace amounts. These results indicate that PgsA can be used to present active PETase on the cell surface of E. coli. This technique is expected to be applied for efficient PET degradation.

UV mutagenesis improves growth potential of green algae in a green algae-yeast co-culture system.

It is known that co-cultivation of green algae with heterotrophic microorganisms, such as yeast, improves green algae's growth potential and carbon dioxide fixation, even under low CO2 concentration conditions such as the atmosphere. Introducing mutations into green algae is also expected to enhance their growth potential. In this study, we sought to improve the growth potential of a co-culture system of the green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae by introducing mutations into the green algae. Additionally, we performed a transcriptome analysis of the co-culture of the green algae mutant strain with yeast, discussing the interaction between the green algae mutant strain and the yeast. When the green algae mutant strain was co-cultured with yeast, the number of green algae cells reached 152 × 105 cells/mL after 7 days of culture. This count was 2.6 times higher than when the wild-type green algae strain was cultured alone and 1.6 times higher than when the wild-type green algae strain and yeast were co-cultured. The transcriptome analysis also indicated that the primary reason for the increased growth potential of the green algae mutant strain was its enhanced photosynthetic activity and nitrogen utilization efficiency.

Building a machine-learning model to predict optimal mevalonate pathway gene expression levels for efficient production of a carotenoid in yeast.

Simultaneous modification of the expression levels of many metabolic enzyme genes results in diverse expression ratios of these genes; however, the relationship between gene expression levels and chemical productivity remains unclear. However, clarification of this relationship is expected to improve the productivity of useful chemicals. Supervised machine learning is considered to be an effective means to clarify this relationship. In this study, to improve the productivity of carotenoids in yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we aimed to build a machine-learning model that can predict the optimal gene expression level for carotenoid production. First, we obtained data on the expression levels of mevalonate pathway enzyme genes and carotenoid production. Then, based on these data, we built a machine-learning model to predict carotenoid productivity based on gene expression levels. The prediction accuracy of 0.6292 (coefficient of determination) was achieved using the test data. The maximum predicted carotenoid productivity was 4.3 times higher in the engineered strain than in the parental strain, suggesting that the expression levels of the mevalonate pathway enzyme genes tHMG1 and ERG8 have a particularly large impact on carotenoid productivity. This study could be one of the important achievements in addressing the uncertainty of genotype-phenotype correlations, which is one of the challenges facing metabolic engineering strategies.

Enhancing 3-hydroxypropionic acid production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae through enzyme localization within mitochondria.

Microbial 3-hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP) production can potentially replace petroleum-based production methods for acrylic acid. Here, we constructed a yeast strain that expressed enzymes related to 3-HP biosynthesis within the mitochondria. This approach aimed to enhance the 3-HP production by utilizing the mitochondrial acetyl-CoA, an important intermediate for synthesizing 3-HP. The strain that expressed 3-HP-producing enzymes in the mitochondria (YPH-mtA3HP) showed improved production of 3-HP compared to that shown by the strain expressing 3-HP-producing enzymes in the cytosol (YPH-cyA3HP). Additionally, cMCR was overexpressed, which regulates a rate-limiting reaction in synthesizing 3-HP. In this study, we aimed to further enhance 3-HP production by expressing multiple copies of cMCR in the mitochondria using the δ-integration strategy to optimize the expression level of cMCR (YPH-mtA3HPx*). The results of flask-scale cultivation showed that 3-HP production by cMCR δ-integration was significantly higher, exhibiting a yield of 160 mg/L in YPH-mtA3HP6* strain and 257 mg/L in YPH-mtA3HP22* strain. Notably, YPH-mtA3HP22*, exhibited the highest 3-HP titer, which was 3.2-fold higher than that of YPH-cyA3HP. Our results demonstrated the potential of utilizing the mitochondrial compartment within S. cerevisiae for enhancing 3-HP production.

Engineering acyl-ACP reductase with fusion tags enhances alka(e)ne synthesis in Escherichia coli.

Alka(e)nes are high-value chemicals with a potentially broad range of industrial applications because of their following advantages: (1) chemical and structural resemblance to petroleum hydrocarbons and (2) higher energy density and hydrophobicity than those of other biofuels. The low yield of bio-alka(e)nes, however, hinders their commercial application. The activity and solubility of acyl carrier protein (ACP) reductase (AAR) affect alka(e)ne biosynthesis in cyanobacteria. The enhancement of the activity and concentration of soluble AAR through genetic and process engineering can improve bio-alka(e)ne yield. Although fusion tags are used to enhance the expression or solubility of recombinant proteins, their effectiveness in improving the production of bio-alka(e)nes has not yet been reported. Fusion tags can be used to improve the amount or activity of soluble AAR in Escherichia coli and to increase the yield of alka(e)nes in E. coli cells co-expressing aldehyde deformylating oxygenase (ADO). Hence, in the present study, histidine (His6/His12), thioredoxin (Trx), maltose-binding protein (MBP), and N-utilization substance (NusA) were used as AAR fusion tags. The strain expressing SeAAR with His12 tag and NpADO showed a 7.2-fold higher yield of alka(e)nes than the strain expressing AAR without fusion tag and NpADO. The highest titer of alka(e)nes (194.78 mg/L) was achieved with the His12 tag.

Identification of genes responsible for absorbing palladium ion in Escherichia coli.

The capability of Escherichia coli BW25113 to adsorb palladium (Pd) ions in a single-gene-knockout library was investigated using high-throughput screening. The results revealed that compared to BW25113, nine strains promoted Pd ion adsorption, whereas 22 strains repressed. Although further studies are required because of the first screening results, our results will provide a new perspective for improving the biosorption.

Construction of a machine-learning model to predict the optimal gene expression level for efficient production of D-lactic acid in yeast.

The modification of gene expression is being researched in the production of useful chemicals by metabolic engineering of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. When the expression levels of many metabolic enzyme genes are modified simultaneously, the expression ratio of these genes becomes diverse; the relationship between the gene expression ratio and chemical productivity remains unclear. In other words, it is challenging to predict phenotypes from genotypes. However, the productivity of useful chemicals can be improved if this relationship is clarified. In this study, we aimed to construct a machine-learning model that can be used to clarify the relationship between gene expression levels and D-lactic acid productivity and predict the optimal gene expression level for efficient D-lactic acid production in yeast. A machine-learning model was constructed using data on D-lactate dehydrogenase and glycolytic genes expression (13 dimensions) and D-lactic acid productivity. The coefficient of determination of the completed machine-learning model was 0.6932 when using the training data and 0.6628 when using the test data. Using the constructed machine-learning model, we predicted the optimal gene expression level for high D-lactic acid production. We successfully constructed a machine-learning model to predict both D-lactic acid productivity and the suitable gene expression ratio for the production of D-lactic acid. The technique established in this study could be key for predicting phenotypes from genotypes, a problem faced by recent metabolic engineering strategies.

Promoting cell growth and characterizing partial symbiotic relationships in the co-cultivation of green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and Escherichia coli.

BACKGROUND: By co-culturing selected microalgae and heterotrophic microorganisms, the growth rate of microalgae can be improved even under atmospheric conditions with a low CO2 concentration. However, the detailed mechanism of improvement of proliferative capacity by co-culture has not been elucidated. In this study, we investigated changes in the proliferative capacity of the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii by co-culturing with Escherichia coli. MAIN METHODS AND MAJOR RESULTS: In the co-culture, the number of C. reinhardtii cells reached 2.22 × 1010  cell/L on day 14 of culture. This was about 1.9 times the number of cells (1.16 × 1010  cell/L) on day 14 compared to C. reinhardtii cells in monoculture. The starch content per cell in the co-culture of C. reinhardtii and E. coli on the 14th day (2.09 × 10-11  g/cell) was 1.3 times higher than that in the C. reinhardtii monoculture (1.59 × 10-11  g/cell), and the starch content per culture medium improved 2.5 times with co-cultivation. By analyzing the gene transcription profiles and key media components, we clarified that E. coli produced CO2 from the organic carbon in the medium and the organic carbon produced by photosynthesis of C. reinhardtii, and this CO2 likely enhanced the growth of C. reinhardtii. CONCLUSIONS: Consequently, E. coli plays a key role in promoting the growth of C. reinhardtii as well as the accumulation of starch which is a valuable intermediate for the production of a range of useful chemicals from CO2 .

Effect of attaching hydrophilic oligopeptides to the C-terminus of organic solvent-tolerant metal-free bromoperoxidase BPO-A1 from Streptomyces aureofaciens on organic solvent-stability.

Metal-free bromoperoxidase BPO-A1 from Streptomyces aureofacience was selected among several similar enzymes exhibiting brominating activity as the most stable haloperoxidase against 70%(v/v) methanol. A comparison of the BPO-A1 and octahistidine-tagged BPO-A1 at the C-terminus (BPO-A1-His8) revealed that the His-tag enhanced the organic solvent-stability of BPO-A1 with pH- and heat-stabilities. Additionally, the contribution of the hydrophilicity at the C-terminal of BPO-A1 to the organic solvent-stability was confirmed employing several mutants bearing hydrophilic oligopeptides. Fortunately, two excellent mutants, BPO-A1-Lys8 and BPO-A1-Arg8, with high stabilities against various water-miscible organic solvents were obtained. In conclusion, the enhancing effect of the hydrophilic oligopeptides on the organic solvent-stability was associated with a decrease in the hydrophobic surface area near the C-terminus.

Bioengineering for the industrial production of 2,3-butanediol by the yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Owing to issues, such as the depletion of petroleum resources and price instability, the development of biorefinery related technologies that produce fuels, electric power, chemical substances, among others, from renewable resources is being actively promoted. 2,3-Butanediol (2,3-BDO) is a key compound that can be used to produce various chemical substances. In recent years, 2,3-BDO production using biological processes has attracted extensive attention for achieving a sustainable society through the production of useful compounds from renewable resources. With the development of genetic engineering, metabolic engineering, synthetic biology, and other research field, studies on 2,3-BDO production by the yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which is safe and can be fabricated using an established industrial-scale cultivation technology, have been actively conducted. In this review, we sought to describe 2,3-BDO and its derivatives; discuss 2,3-BDO production by microorganisms, in particular S. cerevisiae, whose research and development has made remarkable progress; describe a method for separating and recovering 2,3-BDO from a microbial culture medium; and propose future prospects for the industrial production of 2,3-BDO by microorganisms.

Improving carotenoid production in recombinant yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, using ultrasound-irradiated two-phase extractive fermentation.

Carotenoids are hydrophobic compounds that exhibit excellent bioactivity and can be produced by recombinant S. cerevisiae. Irradiating microorganisms with ultrasonic waves increase the productivity of various useful chemicals. Ultrasonic waves are also used to extract useful chemicals that accumulate in microbial cells. In this study, we aimed to improve the carotenoid production efficiency of a recombinant S. cerevisiae using an ultrasonic-irradiation based two-phase extractive fermentation process. When isopropyl myristate was used as the extraction solvent, a total of 264 mg/L of carotenoid was produced when batches were subjected to ultrasonic-irradiation at 10 W, which was a 1.3-fold increase when compared to the control. Transcriptome analysis suggested that one of the reasons for this improvement was an increase in the number of living cells. In fact, after 96 h of fermentation, the number of living cells increased by 1.4-fold upon irradiation with ultrasonic waves. Consequently, we succeeded in improving the carotenoid production in a recombinant S. cerevisiae strain using a ultrasonic-irradiated two-phase extractive fermentation and isopropyl myristate as the solvent. This fermentation strategy has the potential to be widely applied during the production of hydrophobic chemicals in recombinant yeast, and future research is expected to further develop this process.

Improvement of lactic acid tolerance by cocktail δ-integration strategy and identification of the transcription factor PDR3 responsible for lactic acid tolerance in yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Although, yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is expected to be used as a host for lactic acid production, improvement of yeast lactic acid tolerance is required for efficient non-neutralizing fermentation. In this study, we optimized the expression levels of various transcription factors to improve the lactic acid tolerance of yeast by a previously developed cocktail δ-integration strategy. By optimizing the expression levels of various transcription factors, the maximum D-lactic acid production and yield under non-neutralizing conditions were improved by 1.2. and 1.6 times, respectively. Furthermore, overexpression of PDR3, which is known as a transcription factor involved in multi-drug resistance, effectively improved lactic acid tolerance in yeast. In addition, we clarified for the first time that high expression of PDR3 contributes to the improvement of lactic acid tolerance. PDR3 is considered to be an excellent target gene for studies on yeast stress tolerance and further researches are desired in the future.

Improvement of 2,3-butanediol tolerance in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by using a novel mutagenesis strategy.

Although the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been used to produce various bio-based chemicals, including solvents and organic acids, most of these products inhibit yeast growth at high concentrations. In general, it is difficult to rationally improve stress tolerance in yeast by modifying specific genes, because many of the genes involved in stress response remain unidentified. Previous studies have reported that various forms of stress tolerance in yeast were improved by introducing random mutations, such as DNA point mutations and DNA structural mutations. In this study, we developed a novel mutagenesis strategy that allows for the simultaneous performance of these two types of mutagenesis to construct a yeast variant with high 2,3-butanediol (2,3-BDO) tolerance. The mutations were simultaneously introduced into S. cerevisiae YPH499, accompanied by a stepwise increase in the concentration of 2,3-BDO. The resulting mutant YPH499/pol3δ/BD_392 showed 4.9-fold higher cell concentrations than the parental strain after 96 h cultivation in medium containing 175 g/L 2,3-BDO. Afterwards, we carried out transcriptome analysis to characterize the 2,3-BDO-tolerant strain. Gene ontology enrichment analysis with RNA sequence data revealed an increase in expression levels of genes related to amino acid metabolic processes. Therefore, we hypothesize that the yeast acquired high 2,3-BDO tolerance by amino acid function. Our research provides a novel mutagenesis strategy that achieves efficient modification of the genome for improving tolerance to various types of stressors.

Construction of lactic acid-tolerant Saccharomyces cerevisiae by using CRISPR-Cas-mediated genome evolution for efficient D-lactic acid production.

Lactic acid (LA) is chemically synthesized or fermentatively produced using glucose as substrate, mainly using lactic acid bacteria. Polylactic acid is used as a biodegradable bioplastic for packaging materials, medical materials, and filaments for 3D printers. In this study, we aimed to construct a LA-tolerant yeast to reduce the neutralization cost in LA production. The pHLA2-51 strain was obtained through a previously developed genome evolution strategy, and transcriptome analysis revealed the gene expression profile of the mutant yeast. Furthermore, the expression of the genes associated with glycolysis and the LA synthesis pathway in the LA-tolerant yeast was comprehensively and randomly modified to construct a D-LA-producing, LA-tolerant yeast. In detail, DNA fragments expressing thirteen genes, HXT7, HXK2, PGI1, PFK1, PFK2, FBA1, TPI1, TDH3, PGK1, GPM1, ENO2, and PYK2, and D-lactate dehydrogenase (D-LDH) from Leuconostoc mesenteroides were randomly integrated into the genomic DNA in the LA-tolerant yeast. The resultant engineered yeast produced about 33.9 g/L of D-LA from 100 g/L glucose without neutralizing agents in a non-neutralized condition and 52.2 g/L of D-LA from 100 g/L glucose with 20 g/L CaCO3 in a semi-neutralized condition. Our research provides valuable insights into non-neutralized fermentative production of LA. KEY POINTS: • Lactic acid (LA) tolerance of yeast was improved by genome evolution. • The transcription levels of 751 genes were changed under LA stress. • Rapid LA production with semi-neutralization was achieved by modifying glycolysis. • A versatile yeast strain construction method based on the CRISPR system was proposed.

Identification of genes responsible for reducing palladium ion in Escherichia coli.

Palladium (Pd) is commonly used as a catalyst for automobiles and electronic devices, and a reliable source of Pd is required for continued commercial applications. Biomineralization has attracted attention as an inexpensive and eco-friendly recycling approach for a continued supply of Pd. Escherichia coli is one of the best hosts for collecting Pd because it grows rapidly and requires an inexpensive minimal medium. Although E. coli can reduce Pd ions, the mechanism of reduction has not been thoroughly investigated. In this study, we investigated the genes involved in the reduction of Pd ions in E. coli. A gene responsible for the reduction of Pd ions was identified from approximately 4000 genes, other than essential genes, by using the single-gene-knockout library. The rate of reducing Pd ions by E. coli cells was evaluated. Among the investigated single-gene-knockout strains, 7 strains including the gene related to membrane transport, transcriptional regulation, and metabolic enzyme promote the reduction of Pd ions, and 73 strains including the genes related to formate metabolism and molybdopterin synthesis repress the reduction of Pd ions. Our results may provide a new perspective for the improvement of the bioreduction of minor metals.

Construction of yeast producing patchoulol by global metabolic engineering strategy.

Patchoulol is a sesquiterpene alcohol found in the leaves of the patchouli plant that can be extracted by steam distillation. Notably, patchoulol is an essential natural product frequently used in the chemical industry. However, patchouli produces an insignificant amount of patchoulol, not to mention steam distillation, and requires a lot of energy and time. Recombinant microorganisms that can be cultured in mild conditions and can produce patchoulol from renewable biomass resources may be a promising alternative. We previously developed the global metabolic engineering strategy (GMES), which produces a comprehensive metabolic modification in yeast, using the cocktail δ-integration method. In this study, we aimed to produce patchoulol by modifying engineered yeast. The expression of nine genes involved in patchoulol synthesis was modulated using GMES. Regarding patchoulol production, the resultant strain, YPH499/PAT167/MVA442, showed a concentration of 42.1 mg/L, a production rate of 8.42 mg/L/d, and a yield of 2.05 mg/g-glucose, respectably. These concentration values, production rate, and yield obtained through batch-fermentation in this study were high level when compared to previously reported recombinant microorganism studies. GMES could be used as a potential strategy for producing secondary metabolites from plants in recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

N-linked glycosylation of thermostable lipase from Bacillus thermocatenulatus to improve organic solvent stability.

A thermostable lipase from Bacillus thermocatenulatus was glycosylated by forming the consensus sequence (-NXS/T-) for N-linked glycosylation by site-directed mutagenesis. Among the eight BTL2 mutants including the consensus sequence, six BTL2 mutants, A277 N, A290 N, Y200 N, T236 N, T238 N, and P261 N, were glycosylated. Among the six mutants, glycosylated A277 N and T236 N showed higher stability in the presence of 25% (v/v) DMSO (74.3 and 72.8% of initial activity was remained after incubation at 45 °C for 20 h, respectively) than deglycosylated A277 N and T236 N (57.2 and 45.1% of initial activity was remained, respectively). These glycosylated mutants also showed higher remaining activity than wild-type BTL2 (56.0% of the initial activity were remained). Furthermore, the glycosylated mutant T236 N showed longer half-lives in the presence of 25% (v/v) ethylene glycol, DMSO, and DMF (161, 133, and 56.7 h at 45 °C, respectively) than deglycosylated mutant T236 N (107, 91.9, and 42.8 h, respectively). N-linked glycosylation may be a promising approach for preparing enzymes to retain their activity in the presence of organic solvents.

Chemical treatments for modification and immobilization to improve the solvent-stability of lipase.

Lipase is a lipolytic enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of lipids and esterification reactions. Lipase has been utilized in industrial uses, food processing, and therapeutic applications as a biocatalyst. However, substrates of lipase are often insoluble in water, and this problem limits its utility. Lipases are also used in organic solvents where the solvent-stability of lipase is an important factor. There is a huge number of approaches that can be undertaken to improve the organic solvent-stability of lipases. For example, screening of solvent-tolerant lipase in nature and direct evolution of lipase using genetic engineering are some of the employed approaches. Here, we focus on approaches based on the chemical treatment of lipases for modification and immobilization. The solvent-stability of lipase was improved by the attachment of other molecules, such as surfactants, polymers, and carbohydrates. The immobilization of the enzyme is been known to be an effective approach for not only recycling the enzyme but also its stabilization. Several reports have demonstrated that the solvent-stability of lipase is also improved by immobilization. In this review, we provide an overview of the approaches used to improve the solvent-stability of lipase.

CRISPR system in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and its application in the bioproduction of useful chemicals.

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and CRISPR-associated (Cas) immune systems in bacteria have been used as tools for genome engineering. Thus far, the CRISPR-Cas system has been used in various yeast, bacterial, and mammalian cells. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a nonpathogenic yeast, classified under "generally recognized as safe", and has long been used to produce consumables such as alcohol or bread. Additionally, recombinant cells of S. cerevisiae have been constructed and used to produce various bio-based chemicals. Some types of CRISPR-Cas system for genetic manipulation have been constructed during the early developmental stages of the CRISPR-Cas system and have been mainly used for gene knock-in and knock-out manipulations. Thereafter, these systems have been used for various novel purposes such as metabolic engineering and tolerance engineering. In this review, we have summarized different aspects of the CRISPR-Cas in the yeast S. cerevisiae, from its basic principles to various applications. This review describes the CRISPR system in S. cerevisiae based on the differences in its origin and efficiency followed by its basic applications; for example, its involvement in gene knock-in and knock-out has been outlined. Finally, advanced applications of the CRISPR system in the bioproduction of useful chemicals have been summarized.